Works Cited

Social Structure at South Pole Station

People of the South Pole Station

In isolated settings it is important for strong leadership to exist in order to avoid low morale and failure in polar expeditions. However for all communities there should always be a balance between formal leadership roles and informal group structure. To ensure coherence as a community at the South Pole Station, people are selected based on their chance of working successfully and diligently through the term of their contracts as well as providing "effective employee relations" in order to create a successful working environment. Polar workers are generally adventurous, well-traveled, well educated people; there are doctors who apply to be janitors and lawyers who will work in the kitchen in order to have the chance to affordably experience the South Pole. Before coming to the South Pole, all workers must undergo psychological testing and drug and alcohol screening as part of their assessment to determine if they are capable of dealing with the harsh and isolated conditions. Once at the station, everyone is expected to work longer work weeks than usual on occasion, and they are expected to assist others in their duties and assume community-related responsibilities. No guarantees are made regarding duties, location, or duration of work.

"Winter-Overs"

The "winter-overs" are a group of several dozen staff that keep the station functional through the winter. Winter over crews are a civilian operation, with no military involvement, and are completely isolated from mid-February to late October. The crew consist of two primary groups of people: the support personnel and the NSF grantees and their employees. The support personnel, or the "trades", work for a private firm and are contracted to run day-to-day operations of the station. These include plumbers, carpenters, electricians, mechanics, cooks, material handlers, science and computer technicians and station manager. The NSF grantees are scientists conducting research down at the South Pole. They will often bring employees such as grad students, science technicians, and post-doctoral fellows. The scientists and their crew are known as "beakers". At the station, joking behaviour and pranks are an important part of the culture; crew members are assessed on their ability to participate in such behaviour, as it is believed that it helps to improve morales in the extreme isolated conditions. Leadership is also a vital component of the winter-over crew. The importance of leadership lies in the ability of the leader to bring people together in various social contexts, for example dinner parties, sporting events, or movie nights. It is strongly felt that such activities help to de-segregate the "trades" from the "beakers" and create a more cohesive environment. It is the interplay of these social roles that determine the success of the network structure in isolated and extreme conditions.

Selection Process for Winter-Over Crew

Social Structure on the Fram

Amundsen was known for being an innovative thinker. His unique leadership skills are often credited for being the reason his journey to and from the South Pole was successful while the journey led to the antarctic by Robert Falcon Scott, a very traditionalist leader, was not. Amundsen was aware of the conflict that could arise in isolated situations between formal and informal leadership roles. For this reason he kept the backgrounds of all crew members homogenous; there were no scientists allowed on the crew in the hopes of reducing tension that could arise from conflict of backgrounds. In addition, all crew members had to provide an essential "service" to the expedition in hopes of bringing the least number of crew members as possible; more crew members meant more equipment and resources on board, something that Amundsen tried to decrease as much as possible. In order to assure his dominance on the ship before setting out on his journey, Amundsen tested all potential crew members' ability to listen to authority by giving them strange and irrelevant work assignments to see if there would be any potential competition to his authority. Screening all possible members of the crew before setting sail was meant to minimize the likelihood of conflict due to role collision once on the journey.

Roald Amundsen's Selection Process for the Fram

Formal Roles of the Crew Members

Roald Amundsen - Expedition Leader
Lieutenant Thorvald Nilsen - First Lieutenant, 2nd in command
Lieutenant Frekrick Gjertsen - First Mate
Lieutenant Kristian Prestrude - Second Officer, Expedition Navigator
Ajalmar Johansen-
Adolf Henrick Lindstrom - Cook, Carpenter
Olav Olavson Bjaaland -
Helmer Hanssen - Dog Driver, Navigator
Sverne Hassel - Dog Drive, Navigator
Oskar Wisting - Naval Gunner, Whaling Experience in Arctic
Ludvig Hansen - Seaman and Ice Pilot
Martin Ronne - Skilled Sail Maker
Jorgen Stubberud - Carpenter
Andreas Beck - Seaman and Ice Pilot
Knut Snudbeck - Engineer
Jacob Nodtvedt - 2nd Engineer
Alexander Kutchin - Cook, Carpenter
H. Kristensen - Deck Hand, 3rd Engineer

Cabin Fever

Cabin Fever is a severe form of depression that affects people during the winter months and causes inactivity, weight gain, social withdrawal and sleep disturbance. This type of depression is brought on by factors such as severe winter storms, confined spaces and boredom. Also, the lack of sunlight can contribute to the human psyche by causing a chemical imbalance in the brain. This is due to the fact that when serotonin is not released in a sufficient quantity it can lead to depression, which is what can occur in isolated communities such as the Amundsen's Fram and the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station.

Therefore, the design of both of these structures becomes important to prevent this illness from occurring.

Amundsen’s Fram:

In the Amundsen's Fram, cabin fever was prevented by designing all the common areas to be open to all members for social interaction. Also, in this areas entertainment gatherings were held where a game of cards was played or music was played. Lastly, access to the deck allowed for sunlight to provide natural light to the ship.

A Whist-Party in the Saloon at the Fram

Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station:

• 1956 Station

The 1956 station was built underground, which allowed no access to natural sunlight and the only light source was artificial lighting. Also, it was designed as a work station, without accommodating members' needs in such an isolated location. Therefore, only recreation had to be done in the dining area or outside. However, recreation was similar as in the Fram where simple games were played, along with music and reading.

1958 Thanksgiving Dinner

• Dome Station

The dome station was also built underground but it took some new approaches to solve the cabin fever effects. Even though the station was built underground, the dome was meant to be above ground, which allowed for limited sunlight to penetrate the building. However, throughout many winters the dome was covered in snow, which did not allow for light to come in during the summer. Lastly, there were limited areas for recreation but to pass the time the crew members would play music and cards, and created a pass time of dome sliding.

Dome Sliding

• New Station

The new station is the best facility that meets the needs to prevent cabin fever because the design integrated new innovative ways to withstand the harsh climate at the south pole. The fact that this station is elevated, allows for windows to be incorporated to allow sunlight access during the summer months. In addition, it offers new recreation rooms such as a Gym, exercise room, activity/band room, growing chamber, arts and crafts room, sauna, bar, t.v. lounge and game room, etc, to eliminate inactivity. Lastly, during the dark winter months when sunlight is not available, UV lighting has been included to simulate the sunlight.

T.V. Lounge at New Station

Midnight Sun and Polar Nights

The conditions of midnight sun (when the sun does not set for many days in mid-summer) and polar nights (when the sun does not rise for many days in mid-winter) can cause depression or hypomania. The reason for this disturbance of mood may be because of a delay in the sleep-wake cycle. This cycle is usually regulated by the 24-hour dark-light cycle, while seasonal rhythms are affected by the amount of daylight. These are not maintained during the midnight sun and polar nights, and this poses a problem in an arctic setting. The severity of the symptoms are different depending on an individual's vulnerability to extreme variations of light. Check out this time lapse of the midnight sun condition in Antarctica.

The solution for this problem is relatively simple: there must be a control of light. This was considered in the designs of both the Fram and the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. In the midnight sun, curtains and other shading devices are used to simulate a dark environment to promote sleep at night. During polar nights, bright artificial lights are used to combat the loss of natural light in the daytime.

Below, the section of a wing of the South Pole Station demonstrates how the interior berths maintain a day-night cycle with artificial lighting and shading devices, despite the outside environment.

This section of the Fram also shows that it was also able to maintain the day-night cycle. Even when the engine was dismantled, a windmill was used to provide electricity.

Isolation

A key problem that had to be dealt with in the design of the Fram and the South Pole Station, was isolation. Because of the setting of both environments, and the limited contact with the outside world (even more so in the Fram) tension as well as symptoms such as depression are inevitable results.

Some general solutions for communities in isolated communities include; developing a strong sense of community, incorporating elements of a normal lifestyle, ensuring candidates are fit to be exposed to the situation, and other preventative measures.

It is evident that both structures and programs have incorporated such elements into their designs.

For the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, medical care is available 24/7 to help with any medical symptoms, including those resulting from isolation such as depression, impaired cognition, and sleep disturbance. There is also a green room for environmental stimulation, thus it is evident how the station incorporates elements of a normal lifestyle.

Experiential diagram of the green room

Additionally, prospective winter-overs must pass physical and psychological exams to ensure they are capable of handling the effects of isolation. The program establishes common goals to develop a stronger sense of community. Furthermore, personal spaces have been made smaller and less comfortable than communal spaces, encouraging the members to interact with others. Finally, because of today’s technology, the people at the station are still able to have some contact with the outside world. However, it should be noted that there are more rooms allotted to communication within the community than rooms allotted to communication to the outside world, thus encouraging the development of the community further.

The isolation in the Fram was more severe as they were unable to have any contact with the outside world. Measures taken to deal with the problem of isolation included a selection process (as with the South Pole Station) to ensure members would be capable of dealing with the situation (isolation being one of them). Additionally, like the South Pole Station, personal spaces were made smaller and less comfortable than communal spaces, to encourage the development of the community. Amundsen also included pictures and paintings, thus incorporating elements of daily life, in order to make the journey more bearable.

Personal spaces are made smaller and less comfortable than common spaces in both the Fram (bottom) and the South Pole Station (top)

Crew socializing in the saloon of the Fram. Note the painting in the background.

-Nashin Mahtani and Stephanie Fleming

Power Systems of The Fram

The Engines of the Fram
Although the the Fram was a sailing ship, each iteration had an engine. The first two versions used a 220 hp steam engine for propulsion, but during Sverdrup`s expedition the flues leading from from the boiler where burnt out and the whole engine was completely replaced by a 180 hp diesel engine, built by the Norwegian diesel Co.

The first engine required a large boiler and significant amounts of coal, more powerful then the second engine. The replacement allowed for more efficient fuel use, this was important since the trip to the antarctic was significantly farther. Space that was used by the coal bunkers was replaced by oil storage so no extra space was gained by the upgrade. The final version of the Fram had the capacity to hold 90 tons of oil.

Heat from the engines was likely very useful to maintaining livable temperatures during the trip, but while stationary it was useless. During the arctic expedition the engine was disassembled to make space for a work room.

The propeller was capable of being removed and stored to protect it from the ice during it`s time while stationary. The propeller for Amundsen`s Fram was 5 feet 9 inches in diameter, rather small for a propeller but necessary due to the high number of rotations per minute of the new engine.


Lighting Aboard the Fram


Nansen had planned to save resources by taking advantage of the only replenish able sources of energy available in the arctic; the wind. While stationary in the ice a windmill was assembled mid deck. A series of gears lead down to a dynamo,
an old and very large type of electric generator. The generator had a small room dedicated to it mid ship and weighed about 5,000 pounds. The electricity was used to power arclamps through out the ship. This clever innovation would have saved tons of room that would have been needed to store lamp oil. Since the Fram was not used this way in the journey to the Antarctic so the windmill was not useful and was not put on the south pole expedition.

Power Systems of The South Pole Station

The South Pole Station

The current power station is partly buried, conected to the elevated station by a underground passage. Cables bringing power to the research laboratories are hidden below the snow.

The plant can produce up to one Megawatt of power using the four 3512b Caterpillar diesel engines, before this iteration of the power plant the station used three 3412 Caterpillar engines.

The station uses JP-8 jet fuel normally only reserved for military purposes due to its stability at different temperatures. The most desirable quality of it, for the south pole station, is that it will not become gelatinous at low temperatures.

9 fuel tanks in the station hold 950000 liters of fuel. The fuel is delivered like all things brought to the station by plane.

Supplies

Getting supplies in to an isolated community is a huge problem. Since the community is not connected to the rest of the world, it must be able to survive on its own.

Both the Fram and the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station initially dealt with this problem by creating a sort of supply line. The Fram’s supply line began with the ship itself. Supplies were loaded up and taken all the way down to Antarctica. Upon reaching the Bay of Whales, the ship was frozen in to the ice, and they set up a base camp. From there, small crews headed along the path to the South Pole, but instead of going all the way, they created supply depots at key locations and returned to base camp. This allowed Amundsen to travel lightly, and replenish his stock of food as needed on the way to the South Pole and on the way back.

Diagram of the Fram’s Supply Line

The Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station has taken the idea of the supply line and applied it on a much larger scale. Supplies originate in the USA, are shipped to New Zealand and then to the McMurdo station in Antarctica. As you can see, this station is relatively close to the spot where Amundsen himself landed.

From McMurdo, the supplies are flown in a gigantic ski-equipped LC-130 Hercules cargo aircraft, which has the capacity to carry some 40 000 pounds of gear. Food, fuel, and equipment are all transported to the station in this manner.

Diagram of ASSPS’ Supply Line

Picture of the LC-130 Hercules Cargo Plane

Both of these structures had one large problem with their supply lines: they were not continuous. This is obvious for the Fram, as there was no one following them, and they did not plan to stay in Antarctica forever. However, the ASSPS is meant to last forever. This means that people live there all year-round, and therefore need supplies all year-round. Since the cargo planes cannot land for approximately 8 months of the year, no supplies are delivered.

Storage was and still is the easiest answer to the problem of a non-continuous supply line. The diagrams and pictures below illustrate how and where supplies were stored in each of the structures.

Space Allotted for Storage Aboard the Fram

Storage Space Inside a Large Quonset Hut at the ASSPS

Although the crew aboard the Fram killed their dogs as well as native Antarctic animals, and the ASSPS has a room to grow fresh vegetables, neither were really that self-sufficient. In the future, the solution to the problem of supplies would be to simply use only what you could find onsite. This would not be immediately possible, as the initial set of people and supplies
would still have to be transported. However, once the base community was established, surviving with no external support would be the goal.

I’ll finish with a quote from Aristotle’s Politics, Book II.

“There is another line of thought from which it is evident that it is not good to attempt to make the city too much of a unity. A household is more self-sufficient than an individual, and a state more self-sufficient than a household. Indeed, a state comes into being only when an association of many different kinds of people turns out to be self-sufficient. The greater the self-sufficiency, the more desirable the institution; therefore, a lesser degree of unity is more desirable than a higher.”

Any community – isolated or not – must be diverse in order to be self-sufficient. Perhaps the ASSPS needs only to expand and add a slightly wider range of people in to the mix, along with some new facilities and technologies, in order to survive on its own.

Water Supply at the South Pole

As an essential ingredient for life, water is a primary concern for any Antarctic expedition. In the past, expeditions would store water on-board a ship for the voyage and, upon arrival, melt snow by a variety of means for drinking. Various energy and labour-intensive approaches of gathering and melting surface snow were in use at most polar research facilities until the the recent past. At the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, heavy machinery was used to gather snow and dump it into a mechanical ice melter until 1995.

In the mid 1960's, US Army Engineer Corps Raul Rodriguez developed a new approach to the ice melters that had been in common use. The Rodriguez Well has since become the dominant method of obtaining water in polar environments. A well shaft is sunk about 250 feet beneath the surface where heat is used to create a bulb-shaped pool of warmed water. Typically steam is generated in a sub-surface compartment and piped down to the well pocket. Water in the well cavity is always kept above zero degrees with the use of steam, and thus the well cavity and reservoir expand over time to provide drinking water.

A typical Rod Well lasts approximately 7 years, or until the base of the bulb reaches around 500 feet below ground level. When the well becomes too deep it becomes more energy intensive to extract the water than to develop a new well. It is estimated that a typical Rodriguez Well can provide up to 1 million gallons of fresh water before it becomes too deep to economically extract the water.

Those who drink from a Rod Well are partaking of water that was trapped in ice in the distant past--the deeper you go the older the strata. According to John Rand, an engineer at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, the well is currently providing water that was frozen around 500CE.

Recent innovations in Rod Well technology are the introduction of in-line heat exchangers to remove the warmth in the extracted water and return it to the well for greater energy efficiency. It is estimated that Rod Wells are about 80% more efficient than their predecessor technology of surface snow melting which requires a constant snow-gathering effort.

Building Envelope of South Pole Station

The South Pole Station is among the highest performance buidings in the world with regards to conservation of heat energy. The building incorporates myriad technological approaches to capturing and reusing heat from appliances and mechanical processes within the building, but none of these efforts would be effective if the building envelope itself were not so well-insulated.

The building envelope is made of conventional structural insulated panels, a residential building product composed of two sheets of Oriented Strand Board (OSB) sandwiching a slab of Expanded Polystyrene Insulation (EPS). The boards are laminated onto each side of the foam core and work in tandem with the foam as a stress-skin panel--an engineered assembly which is stronger than the sum of its parts. When used on the horizontal plane as part of a floor or roof assembly, a stress-skin panel works the same way as an I-beam with the top panel in compression and the bottom panel in tension.



These high-performance modular building blocks are a highly effective material in polar regions since they are lightweight, very quick and easy to assemble, and combine structure, insulation, and an integral vapour barrier in a single element. The South Pole Station utilizes SIPS for its entire building envelope as both a structural and an insulative element for floors, walls, and roof.

WALL SECTION OF SOUTH POLE STATION


Panels typically come in four foot wide sections with custom lengths of up to sixteen feet and foam core thicknesses up to 11.25". The panels are joined together by means of a spline which fits into both edges of two adjacent panels as a bridge to mechanically fasten them together. The fact that the resulting wall assembly is completely solid with no voids prevents air inflitration and offers a higher performance wall assembly in terms of fire resistance, strength, durability, and thermal resistance.

Link to manufacturer of SIPS for Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station:

http://www.enercept.com/

Heat

Machinery stops working at a temperature of approximately -40 degrees Celsius. Aircraft stops working at a temperature of approximately -45 degrees Celsius. Symptoms of hypothermia begin to appear when a human's core body temperature drops one or two degrees Celsius. With the South Pole reaching temperatures downwards of -60 degrees Celsius during the winter, it comes as no surprise that any structure that is to survive within the Antarctic climate must be designed to accommodate such extreme cold.

The wall sections seen below show how each structure incorporates insulation in order to retain whatever heat exists inside. Although the Fram’s section is much wider, this has more to do with the fact that the hull of the ship had to be extremely strong, and therefore had to have many layers of wood. Amundsen actually worked to maximize the efficiency of the insulation while reducing the amount of space it took up. The layers of wood – especially the greenheart – also were used to make sure that ice and snow did not seep inwards and destroy the ship.

Fram Wall Section

ASSPS Wall Section

The diagram below illustrates how the insulation works in order to hold the heat inside across the whole structure. This is especially important for the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. Typically, a building resting on ice will emit heat from all areas, thus forming a thermal bulb underneath the building. As explained later, this leads to differential settlement. The ASSPS combats this by heavily insulating the floor and the substructure, and only having columns break through to the substructure. This means that essentially no heat is released through the floor. Once again, this will be explained in depth elsewhere.





We now understand how heat is retained, but the next concern is how it is generated. Due to technological limitations, the Fram had to use petroleum to heat the ship, and the crew made use of extremely warm outerwear when above or below deck. In the laboratory, warm air is brought in from the galley.

Roald Amundsen and his Nifty Winter Gear

The Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station took this idea of piping in warm air to a whole new level. They used heat exchangers to capture waste heat from different areas, and then moved the heat to where it was needed. This mainly takes place in the power plant, as shown below, where the diesel engines are situated.

Diesel Engine and its Waste Heat

Distribution of Waste Heat from the Power Plant

Waste heat is also captured from other areas of the building, such as the kitchen, the green room, and various electronic rooms.

Other Areas Where Waste Heat is Captured